Domestic Violence and Social Class Essay Example for Free

Domestic Violence and Social Class Essay Domestic violence is something that happens every day around the world. Young, old, rich or poor, this is an issue that we must look at to better ourselves as a country. One of the things that we look at is how domestic violence relates to the different social classes of the country, this being upper, middle, and lower. Some would thing that it would be more common in lower classes, but the reality of it is domestic violence is a problem across all social classes. In this paper I will discuss different articles about domestic violence and its relation to social class. It is clear to see that any of the articles on this topic focus around women as victims and men get put into a category of the only ones committing violence. From different articles you can see that social class has a relation and an effect on domestic violence. To begin with we need to understand what domestic violence is. The National Domestic Violence Hotline describes domestic violence as pattern of behavior in any relationship that is used to gain or maintain power and control over an intimate partner. Abuse is physical, sexual, emotional, economic or psychological actions or threats of actions that influence another person. This includes any behaviors that frighten, intimidate, terrorize, manipulate, hurt, humiliate, blame, injure or wound someone. Domestic violence can happen to anyone of any race, age, sexual orientation, religion or gender. It can happen to couples who are married, living together or who are dating. Domestic violence affects people of all socioeconomic backgrounds and education levels (The National Domestic Hotline). This is one of the best definitions you will find. Its important to realize that Domestic Violence can happen to anyone. The focus on economic background is important; there is not one ocial class that domestic violence does not occur in. It is key that we keep this in mind, otherwise we begin to label and fit certain social groups into categories. And as we will find out this is not the case at all. In Gender, Status, and Domestic Violence, by Kristin L. Anderson she discusses many issues related to domestic violence. In her article she talks about social economic status and how it can affect domestic violence. The section on social class begins with how gender and social class play very big roles with each other, or how each social class helps determine the resources available to men for the construction f masculinity (Anderson, 1995). Anderson begins with the working and lower class and how their position they hold at work lacks power and authority. This can lead to violence in the home because they search for positions of power in other aspects of their life. And many times the search for power and masculinity starts in their home life. This could be one explanation for the cause of domestic violence among low income social class. It is very clear that society even thought changing for the better over the years, still puts the man as the breadwinner of his family. And if a man annot produce for their family I agree with her that that will look for other places to find there masculinity and in some cases this is accomplished with violence against their partner. Next Anderson discusses middle and upper class together. She states with reference from another article that Middle and upper class notions of masculinity focus on ambition, responsibility, and professional employment (Segal, society. The research done in this article shows that men or women with low income jobs and less resources are more likely to be violent in their home as a means to gain the lack of power in their life. Men who have fewer resources then there female partners will be more likely to commit domestic assault than the men with resources equal or greater than their female partners (Anderson, 1995). We can see for the research done by Anderson that she focuses on the reporting of violence. I would have like to have seen some numbers on education and or employment in ration to domestic violence. But it is clear and can be understood that men base their masculinity on their economic social status, and if that status is low they begin to search for other ways to gain power, and often that is in the means of domestic iolence against their partners. Social class plays a key role in everyday life of millions around the world. So it is clear that social class would play a role in domestic violence. Knowing that domestic violence knows no boundaries it is correct to say that wealth does not protect against violence. In the article Economic stress and Domestic Violence by Claire M. Renzetti from the National Online Resource Center on Violence against Women, they bring social class and domestic violence into clear view. One discussion in the article which we have to take into account when looking at social class and domestic violence is ell put when she stats the data we have about domestic violence comes from samples to which researchers have greatest access, such as individuals who use social services and these individuals are more likely to have low incomes (Renzetti, 2009). With this in mind it is clear to see why there are so many articles on low income violence. As she states from a study done by Benson and Fox (2003) from analyzing data from the National Survey of Household and Families, the family income increases the likelihood of domestic violence decrease. It is becoming clearer hat even though we know that domestic violence knows no social class, The National Crime Victimization Survey reports the chance of violence in a low income household is five times great then the households with the highest incomes (Renzetti, 2009). As stated earlier it seems that the relation to domestic violence and employment takes a big part of the problem with violence among the social classes. In the article by Anderson early discuss she makes it clear that the feeling of power is directly related to the males economic standing. Renzetti state that sever studies have documented hey deliberate sabotage to their partners efforts to maintain paid employment (2009). We can tie that back to how males base their masculinity and power on their economic status. Women have reported that their attempts to obtain paid employment outside their homes only aggravated their partners. It is becoming clear that men see power in being the main provider in the house and to lose some of that power is demining in some ways, and can result in violence against their partners. She references an article by Bush (2003) say that paid employment if a female intimate partner is threatening for some men, especially men who are unemployed r in low paying Jobs. Renzitti states that some researchers have argued that social class has a greater influence on domestic violence risk than race/ethnicity, and that even the social class of your neighborhood plays into account. Disadvantaged neighborhoods domestic violence rates are significantly higher in neighborhoods By now it is clear that there is a relation between social class and domestic violence. In domestic violence, sexual assault and stalking by Walby Allen (2004) they discuss how it could be the domestic violence that is causing the low economical status. This is a little broader thinking then our other authors but still Walby Allen tie mans need for masculinity and power into the equation. But first to look how they discuss domestic violence as the cause for low social status, the lack of economic resources is clearly associated with domestic violence against women. But it is how we see one leading to the other that they discuss. Walby Allen purpose that maybe it is the other way around. For example that poverty and low social status are the consequences of domestic violence. Women who leave behind their homes and partners in order to escape violence will be much more ikely to be poorer as a consequence of the loss of their home and of their partners income (Walby Allen, 2004). This is a new concept to think about but can easily be seen as possible. From what we have learned low income family are more prone to domestic violence, it is clear to see if the victim does get out of this relationship they have no means of economic support. In return this Just keeps them in poverty and most likely sinks them deeper down the status pool of the world. As Walby Allen (2004) report that eventually making their way back into the abusive elationship because they have no economic support. It seems that the affect that social class and domestic violence have on each other is a never ending cycle. As we found in the research social class plays a big part in domestic violence and in some cases domestic violence plays a big part in social class. Whichever way that you look at it one constant held true across all of the articles, this being that men have been socially constructed by society to have to have the need for power in relationships. And when that power is lacking a nd they feel there masculinity is in eopardy we see domestic violence. Now a lot of the focus of the articles was on the lower class, showing that the economic stress had a direct relation to man and the need for power. We need to understand that the lower social status groups are not the only ones with a domestic violence problem. Like I said earlier domestic violence can happen across any social class, rich or poor. Most of the research that is done focuses on women in poverty because that is where the easy samples are. We know that there is a problem there, we need to move on to research that examines women ofa higher social standing. When we open up to who is we look at then we will begin to get a real grasp on the social class and domestic violence issue. Now I know that that depends on if they are willing to report, but that is a whole different topic for a different day. We have to be careful not to stereotype individuals into this field Just because of the economic standing, but it is clear that social class and domestic violence show a clear and direct relation with each other.

Concepts Of Consumer Behaviour And Mobile Phones Marketing Essay

Concepts Of Consumer Behaviour And Mobile Phones Marketing Essay Mobile phone occupies a fundamental place in peoples daily life. It has become one of the most important tools for personal communication across the globe during the past fifteen years. Consumer behavior is the study of when, why, how and where people do or do not buy products (Sandhusen; Richard, 2000). One of the things that can be categorized as both needs and desires is mobile phone. This chapter introduces the concept of Consumer Behaviour and shows the various components applicable to the mobile phones purchase in Mauritius. This will include the key factors influencing the Mauritians buying behaviour for mobile phones. The different criteria consumers consider in their buying behaviour will also be exemplified. Concepts of Consumer Behaviour and Mobile Phones In todays world consumer behaviour is one of the most fascinating topics. Consumer is the ultimate user of every product, without any consumer there is no market as such (Baker, 2004). Consumers are considered the king therefore it is very essential to study the behaviour of consumers. Blackwell et al. (2001) described consumer behaviour as the activities, in which people acquire, consume and dispose products and services. In the same view, Kundi et al (2008) stated that consumer behavior refers to the mental and emotional process and the observable behavior of consumers during searching, purchasing and post consumption of a product or services. McGraw-Hill (2005) defined consumer buying behaviour as the behaviour in the quest to satisfy needs which products and services were acquired to satisfy these personal consumption needs. Customers make purchases in order to satisfy needs. According to Christ (2009) some of these needs are basic and must be filled by everyone on the planet whi le others are not required for basic survival and vary depending on the person. It probably makes more sense to classify needs that are not a necessity as wants or desires. On the other hand, Peter and Olson, (1993) mentioned that interactions between the peoples emotions, moods, affection and specific feelings is called consumer behavior, in other words in environmental events which they exchange ideas and benefits each is called consumer behavior . Figure 1: Influential factors of consumer behaviour Source: Kotler Armstrong, 2008 By understanding consumer behaviour deeply, different authors have given different information about the consumer behaviour and how consumer buys the products. Consumer behavior involves the psychological process that consumers go through in recognizing needs, findings ways to solve these needs, making purchase decisions, interpret information, make plans and implement these plans (Perner, 2008). Consumer behaviour towards mobile phones The emerging technologies, one that promises greater variety in applications, highly improved usability, and speedier networking (Robert Godwin-Jones, 2008). Mobile phone is a constant companion to many people. Mobile phone which is fundamentally a communication device has undergone several transformations making its functionalities transcending the traditional voice communication between two individuals (Kushchu, 2007). Mobile technology is a daily communication device that allows people to communicate worldwide within seconds. Different researchers have diverse view about mobile phones. Xiaowei Huang (2011) identified mobile phone as one of the cultural commodities in todays world. According to Bassett (2006), today, the functions of mobile phones are not only for making and receiving calls, but also for providing other functions such as mailboxes, digital cameras, video recorders, personal radios, personal organizers, and even MP3 players. It is sometimes assuming that the mobile becomes each of these objects rather than simulating them, or re-mediating them; that it takes on the most advanced characteristics of each media stream it subsumes, and also assumes the development trajectory, or even the nature, or ontology, of these media (Bassett 2006). Nowadays mobile phone users are more adaptive, definitive, and subjective to how they use the communication device (Murni Mahmud et al, 2010). Mobile phone is not only a medium for communication but an entertainment device, an educative tool. Consumers used the technology as designed by the designers to satisfy different purposes beyond the conception of the designer (Carroll et al., 2002; Bar et al., 2007). Mobile technology were used and interpreted by users of mobile phones in their distinctive ways rather than how the designer had conceptualised the use of the mobile phones. Likewise mobile phone usage became more meaningfully through how the technology is used, the purposes it serves, and the context of its use through choice of functions and features (Okabe, 2004; Lindqvist and Svensson, 2007; Wirth et al., 2008). Overview of the Mauritian Mobile Phone market The Republic of Mauritius, a small island state with a population of 1.3 million inhabitants, is nestled in the middle of the Indian Ocean. Mauritius was the first country to launch cellular operations in the Southern Hemisphere on 29 May 1989 (Minges, Gray Tayob, 2004). Mauritius has been the first with the many telecommunication innovations in the African continent, who aims to be known as a cyber island. Telecommunication had an early beginning in Mauritius, the first telephone line was installed in 1883, seven after the invention of the telephone. The privatisation of telecommunication industries since the mid-1990s, most mobile phone markets have been characterised by competitive industries due to the presence of more than one operator (Bailard, 2009; ITU, 2011). The result is more affordable and reliable mobile services. People also do not have to wait for long periods of time to have a mobile phone installed. The Mauritian telecommunications sector was fully liberalized in Ja nuary 2003 pursuant to the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) commitment made by Mauritius in 1998 (WTO, 2012). Currently there are 3 main mobile phone operators in Mauritius namely Orange, Emtel and MTML. Orange is the market leader, while Emtel and MTML are the challengers. Emtel first launched the 4G Mobile in Mauritius, Tassarajen Chedumbrum Pillay, Minister of Information Technology and Communication (ICT), which officially launched the 4G mobile phone service on May 29, 2012 (Lexpress.mu, 2012). Mobile penetration rates have exploded from a mere 1.05 percent in 1995 to a staggering 92.79 percent by the end of 2010. Mobile cellular subscribers rose by 9.6% to reach 1,190,900 in 2010 from 1,086,700 in 2009. Prepaid subscribers increased by 8.5% from 1,013,000 in 2009 to 1,099,200 in 2010. Mobidensity or the number of mobile cellular phones per 100 inhabitants increased by 9.2% from 85.0 in 2009 to 92.8 in 2010 (Central Statistics Office, 2011). Figure 2: Mobile cellular subscriptions in Mauritius C:UsersRachnaDesktopchart.png Source: World Bank, 2011 Consumers purchase preferences and satisfaction level for mobile phones For perspective of globalization we cannot change the system of tastes and preferences of Consumers. Another instance demonstrating the ignorance of local tastes in the wake of globalization features the multinational mobile phone makers, Nokia had tasted success with its soap-bar designed phones and ceased producing the flip phones that consumers found irritating to use (Zaccai, 2005). Every consumer has their own tastes and preferences. So, every consumers opinions and preferences are different from one another. It has also been pointed that many decision strategies used by consumers can change due to person-, context-, and task-specific factors (Dhar, Nowlis and Sherman, 2000; Swait and Adamowicz, 2001). Consumers tend to utilize different approaches to make choices. Mobile phone choice and use has also been found to be related to prior consumption styles. According to a survey of Finnish young people aged 16-20, it was found that mobile phone choice and especially usage is consis tent with respondents general consumption styles (Wilska, 2003). Customer value perceptions are found to significantly impact and drive consumers intentions in terms of repurchase intent, word-of-mouth referrals, customer commitment and loyalty (e.g. Brady and Cronin, 2001; Cronin et al., 2000; Duman and Mattila, 2005; Christou, 2003). In general, a common distinction to be made is that while the utilitarian goods usually are primary instrumental and functional, hedonic goods provide fun, pleasure and excitement. It has been noted that many choices have both utilitarian and hedonic features (Batra and Ahtola, 1990), and thus it can also be proposed that the choice between mobile phones has both utilitarian (e.g., communication, time planning) and hedonic (e.g., games, camera) features. Quite similarly, consumer choice can also be approached from the perspective of conscious and non conscious choice (e.g., Fitzsimons et al., 2002). On the other hand, direct marketing activities have big impact on every consumer, every company knows about the behavior of every consumer in the market. This theory helps for the organization and sub-organizations to know the consumer behavior in different market environments, taste and preferences of the consumer behavior (Thomas, 2004). Kalpana and Chinnadurai (2006) found that adverti sement play a dominant role in influencing the customers but most of the customers are of opinion that promotional strategies of cellular companies are more sale oriented rather than customer oriented. Nandhini (2001) examined that attitude of the respondents using cell phones was not influenced by either education or occupation and income Usage functions and features as a key driver of consumer acceptance of mobile phones Another important aspect that has risen from different studies is that consumers purchase new phones due to the fact that their existing ones capacity is not appropriate referring to the idea that new technology features such as built-in cameras, better memory, radio, more developed messaging services, and color displays are influencing consumer decisions to acquire new models (In-Stat/MDR, 2002; Liu, 2002; OKeefe, 2004; Karjaluoto et al., 2005). Thus it can be expected that new features will influence the intention to acquire new mobile phones. The consumer will respond according to the product quality and reliability, the fundamental understanding of products is necessary to understand the product features, products reliability and product benefits (Baker, 2004). For example, researchers like Chang and OSullivan (2005) showed that concrete feedback provided when keys are pressed offers a good satisfaction experience among the mobile phone users whilst Lesher et al. (1998) and Nesba t (2003) re-designed the keypads to expedite text entry. Moreover, studies involving elderly users found them to prefer large, clear and bright screens (Kurniawan et al., 2006; Nizam et al, 2008). Mobile phones are often criticized as being too small to be held and handled (Balakrishnan and Yeow, 2007). In a recent paper, V. Balakrishnan (2011) investigated mobile phone messaging satisfaction among Malaysian youths. It was found that mobile phone users have mixed feelings towards text entry speed, keypad design and health-lower extremity and thus, they are unsure about their overall SMS satisfaction. Hence this indicates that consumers lay more emphasis on the design of the mobile phone while choosing which cell phone to buy. The younger the consumer the more hedonistic features consumers tend to value in mobile phones (Wilska, 2003). Though, in Africa, the use of SMS and chat services has been widely accepted, but people are still reluctant to engage in other mobile data services, such as MMS, mobile banking and web browsing amongst others (Brown, Gordon, Janik Meyer, 2005). The major portion of the population uses SMS, chat services and some leisure based services such as ring tones and games but they are still reluctant to engage in other more advanced data services (Goldstuck, 2005; Bouwman et al., 2006). Mobile value-added services are digital services added to mobile phone networks other than voice services, including short message service, games, entertainments, web surfing, software applications and functions for achieving specific purposes (e.g. performing electronic transactions (Kuo et al., 2009). Among all m-commerce applications, mobile value-added services have been recognized as having a remarkably promising future in the telecom service market because customer values, such as time-critical needs and arrangements, spontaneous needs and decisions, entertainment needs, and efficiency needs and ambitions, can be met by using these services (Anckar and DIncau, 2002). Consequently, mobile phone technological advances allow customers to participate in the mobile services development, design, production and delivery process, mobile phone users increasingly demand for affordable and reliable services that correspond exactly to their specific individual needs, lifestyle and preferen ces (Sigala, 2002). Generally speaking, a positive attitude with regard to new information technologies can be found among the younger, male and high-income categories (Brown and Vemnkatesh, 2005; Gefen and Straub, 1997; Ilie et al., 2005; Rice and Katz, 2003; Wei and Lo, 2006). Not all types of mobile phone are successful in entering the market because some types of the mobile phone have a negative perception of user (Jaya Suteja and Stephany Tedjohartoko, 2011). While some people find using mobile devices to conduct transactions relatively easy, others experience difficulty with the small screen size and small keypad. Data input becomes a problem, and this can lead to wasted time, errors and frustration experienced by users, hence making usability less attractive (Chen Frolick, 2004).However, the mobility of mobile devices also increases the risk of losing them (Tarasewich, 2003). Mobile users are worried about the safety of their devices as these can easily be lost or stolen. Branding as a major factor affecting purchase of mobile phones Brand image is perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory (Keller, 2003). Brand is considered as a warranty not only of the quality and performance but also of the difference and emotional relationship with the product (Bahmanziari et al., 2003; Jiang, 2004). Moreover, the technological advancement lead to product features becoming more and more similar, as such consumers are often incapable or reluctant to distinguish between brands on rational attributes alone (Temporal and Lee, 2001). Likewise Riquelme (2001) examined how much self knowledge consumers have when making choice between different mobile phone brands based upon six key attributes (telephone features, connection fee, access cost, mobile-to-mobile phone rates, call rates and free calls). The research showed that consumers with prior experience about a product can predict their choices relatively well, although respondents tended to overestimate the importance of features, call rates and free calls and underestimate the importance of a monthly access fee, mobile-to-mobile phones rates and the connection fee. Brand image acts as information prompt (Bhat and Reddy, 1998). Moreover, brands can accelerate consumers information transmission (Kotler, 1999). Brand image helps to create positive attitudes and feelings. Brand effects for mobiles have been investigated by various authors. Luca Petruzzellis (2010) studied the hedonic and utilitarian value dimensions to better understand the brand effect. Previous research has shown that consumer brand image would affect consumers opinions on brand equity, leading to brand loyalty. Brand equity significantly affected purchase intention (Chen, 2010). Brand equity is referred to the marketing results that accrue to a product with its brand name as compared to those that would ensue if the same product did not have the brand name (Aaker, 1991; Ailawadi et al., 2003; Keller, 2003). The brand equity influences consumer-level constructs such as attitudes, awareness, image, and knowledge and company related outcomes like market share, prices, revenues and cash flow (Ailawadi et al., 2003). Accordingly brand equity drives to brand loyalty. Likewise, Chaudhuri and Holbrook (2001) added that affective responses to brands are of utmost importance as brand effect is a strong driver of brand loyalty. Additionally, in the context of the mobile communications industry, Baker et al. (2010) examine the importance of brand equity in generating greater consumer demand for mobile communications products/services. In a similar vein, Jurisic and Azevedo (2011) address the need to increase brand equity by building and maintaining customer-brand relationships, which can be done by valuing the issues that customers value the most in order to increase their emotional attachments to the brand. Personality influences on mobile phones Mobile phones have been recognised as a form of self-expressive identity (Mannetti, Pierro, Livi, 2002; Walsh White, 2007) with many mobile phone users personalizing their phones to express their identity by decorating their phones and having unique ring-tones (Goggin, 2006; Katz Sugiyama, 2005). Self-identity has also been found to predict level of mobile use, with use increasing as self-identification as a mobile phone user increases (Walsh White, 2007). These findings suggest it may be worthwhile to assess whether self-identity is related to the level of involvement that people have with their mobile phone to improve our understanding of the connection between material objects and behaviour. As the mobile phone supports interpersonal interaction, mobile phone use might be a function of personality (Sarah Butt James G. Phillips, 2008). Historically, a mobile phone has been pricy with the market dominated by business users (Kendall, 1997). It has been considered a status symbol for the rich and famous during the early 1990s all over the world. The mobile phone is, however, more than a communication tool or piece of furniture: it is an extension of their person, and expresses their identity and selfhood in a variety of ways, including both how it is used and how it is worn (Helen Haste, 2005). It has been argued that a young persons mobile phone is a central expression of their identity (Brown et al. 2002). Young people are increasingly using and adapting mobile phones not only to interact with their own worlds, but to create and structure their worlds (Spero Stone, 2004 Referral influences for mobile phone buyers behaviour Consumer behaviour research on consumers social and interpersonal environment has indicated that the mobile phone consumers final purchasing decision will also be influenced by reference groups (such as friends, family, work associates and etc.) on whether to buy a specific product and which brand or model to choose among competing alternatives (Moschis, 1976). Wooten and Reed (2004) suggested that consumers with high susceptibility to normative influence tend to use protective self-presentation to avoid undesirable disapproval. In the studies of Jiaqin Yang et al. (2007), reference groups have a significant influence on US mobile phone consumers in their purchasing behavior. The target population for the survey was Chinese people, they consume similar brands or products that their peers consuming. In comparison, individualism is a popular trait among US consumers, so most American consumers focus more on their personal needs and less concerning about the opinion of others. It can be further supported by a recent research (Mourali et al., 2005). The research of Tiana Tucker (2011) illustrate that friends were the most influential people for young adults when looking to purchase a new mobile phone. Sernovitz (2009) described word of mouth marketing as all about consumers sharing their experiences of products by ways other than direct marketing to consumers. When an idea is transferred to the consumers and they send it to fellow customers, that is, a form of real word of mouth communication. Word of mouth seems desirable to achieve positive perception and thus preference for a brand in the customers mind (Sweeney et al., 2008). One way that offers a distinct point of advantage is positive word of mouth (WOM). Early studies suggested that WOM is nine times as effective as traditional advertising in converting unfavorable or neutral predispositions into positive attitudes (e.g., Day, 1971). More recently, Hogan et al. (2004) showed that WOM can triple the effectiveness of advertising. Table 1: Types of Reference Groups Type of Reference Group Definition Example Formal Clearly defined structure and membership Soccer club Informal Has no formal rules Families, friends and peer groups Primary Has face-to-face interaction Students in a class Membership Members of a certain group and model behaviour on others in the group Members of a church or a social club Non-membership Do not have membership but may still model their behaviour on members of this group Non-member of church may still be influenced by members behaviour: helping those in need Aspirational Groups that people aspire to belong Movie stars and famous personalities (Ryk Neethling) Dissociative Groups that you avoid or reject Gangs Source: Cant et al. (2006); Strydom, et al. (2000) Mobile technology within the social and occupational spheres influence buying patterns Social needs are the needs for social interaction of an individual that represent the need for communicating with friends, family and affiliation such as group membership, clubs, churches and work affiliations (Tikkanen, 2009). Social need is one of the determinants of consumers dependency on mobile phones (smartphones) because the mobile phones have become much more versatile, allowing consumers increased usage for communication and maintaining relationships between and among individuals (Lippincott, 2010). This is supported by the Mafe and Blas (2006) study which found that consumers high dependency on smartphones is positively correlated with consumers future purchase behaviour. Currently, TV-individual interaction through text messages includes participation in programmes in order to vote, downloading a variety of content, expressing opinions and appearing on screen, taking part in draws or competitions and even TV screen chats (Beyer et al., 2007). Mobile phones have in the firs t place been enhancing friendships and family interaction and have resulted in the tightening of social cohesion among close friends and family members (Ling Horst, 2011). In Wei and Los (2006) research, it was found that consumers were highly engaged with smartphones when there was a positive correlation between social needs and dependency. Consumers with a high need to socialize and be connected were found to increase their usage rate on mobile phones because Bodker et al. (2009) claimed that interaction or social networking has been embedded and conveyed through the mobile phones itself. Consequently, consumers with a lower level of social needs are expected to have a lower usage rate of smartphone (Morgan, 2010). According to Hundley and Shyles (2010), consumers fulfils their social need by engaging with mobile phones and have concerns about being socially disconnected, uninformed and excluded from friends and their social activities. Research has consistently shown that many young people believe mobile phone use enhances social inclusion by allowing them to remain in contact with friends and peers at all times (see, e.g., Ling, 2004; Peters ben A llouch, 2005; Wei Lo, 2006). Additionally, some mobile phone users report feeling loved and valued when they receive contact on their mobile phone (Walsh, White, Young, 2009) and that positive messages are stored on mobile phones so they can be re-read when the user is feeling low (Srivastava, 2005). Young people are heavy users of mobile phones; they are the majority of the population who users mobile phone the most (Dickinger, et al., 2004). As such the younger generation is keener to have high technology devices, for example latest technology mobile phones than the older population. Mobile phones are more as a fashion accessory to the young generation than a communication device (Robins, 2003). Mobile devices are more likely to be used in the presence of other people and may even be seen as a fashion accessory (Lu et al., 2005, 2008). More public use of these portable systems may mean that users are more open to circumstances of social judgement, criticism and censure. Young people are using and adapting mobile phones more and more not only to interact with their own worlds, but to create and structure their worlds (Spero Stone, 2004). Mobile phone is now a common part of youngsters lifestyle. Research showed that mobile phones enable young people to be associated to their fa mily and to their peers and allows them even more freedom to connect and explore. The impact of culture on mobile phone purchase Culture is identified as the collective mental programming of individuals in an environment (Hofstede, 1980). This means that culture is not genetically inherited, and it cannot exist on its own but acquired from the society. An individuals behavior is a result of that individuals cultural value system for a particular context which are changed and developed over time (Luna and Gupta, 2001). According to various authors, culture is believed to have a great influence on consumer behaviour. Culture has a profound influence on how and why consumers purchase range products and services, (Blackwell et al., 2001). Cultural groups influence the consumption patterns. Moreover, ethnic background and geographical locations play a large part in culture and establishing culturally acceptable and unacceptable consumer behavior. Subcultures exist with culture groups. According to researchers obtaining a mobile phone is a milestone that indicates success, not only financially but also culturally in term of the integration within society, (Castells et al. 2007). On the other hand, Marquardt (1999) has claimed that mobile phones affect social relationships and this is a disintegration of communities. Mobile phone usage has resulted in greater electronic interactions between friends and family at the expense of face to face interaction which have been dramatically reduced. Consequently, it could be proposed that mobile phones are changing individual cultural norms and values (Rauch, 2005). Conversely, HUANG Xiaowei (2011) argued that the mobile phone, with its dramatic development and peerless functions, is not a myth but a consequence of social development. The study from Choi and Geistfeld (2004) showed that functionality design, feature images and brand images are highly positive correlated with cultural characteristics of the users. Research showed that in some of Shanzhai mobile companies develop special models of mobiles for sub-cultural group consumers, for example, for Buddhists they have gold plated mobile with Buddha picture as inter face and sutra (Jun Li, 2010). Subcultures comprise of nationalities, religions, racial groups, and geographic regions. Further, Lee and Kacen (2008) discovered that subjective cultures tend to influence the buying intention of consumers. Gay et al. (1997) defined culture as the what-everybody-knows about the world without consciously knowing where or when they first learned it. The research work by Monthathip Srikes et al (2009) demonstrated that differences in national culture impact on the buyer behaviour of the Thai and British consumers when purchasing a mobile phone. For example, for Thai consumers, it is important to note that social acceptance acts as the main buying decision factor alongside their cultural attributes. In contrast, a strong correlation occurred between buying Intention self- direction and price -hedonism with British consumers (Monthathip Srikes, Panos Louvieris, Catherine Collins, 2009). Mobile phone choice as a learning device Mobile technology is dominating the world rapidly. In the educational system, Ling (2003) argues that communication systems between students have always existed. Students have always communicated to each other by passing notes, whispering, using hand signals, and the like (Ling 2003). Furthermore, the use of the mobile phone to send SMS eliminates the physical note, thus allowing for discretion-the message cannot be seen or read by others (Ling, 2003). Mobile learning devices such as mobile phones now have the emerging potential to achieve a large scale impact because of their portability, versatile features, and low cost (Roschelle, 2003). Many researchers have analysed the effectiveness of mobile phones. Taher Bahrani (2011) believes that mobile phones offer promising opportunities for learning in informal setting outside the classroom borders. Moreover, the increase in processing power, storage memory, and connectivity through the internet or the Bluetooth technology have resulted in an extensive growth in media richness that can provide access to highly personalized learning environment for everyone in informal setting (Pea Maldonado, 2006). As the matter of fact, the conventional mobile phone is more than just a device to make a call. In recent years, there have been many studies and projects using the relevant mobile technologies such as mobile phones or ipods for both formal and informal language learning (Chinnery, 2006; Kadyte, 2003; Kiernan Aizawa, 2004; Levy Kennedy, 2005; Norbrook Scott, 2003; Paredes et al., 2005; Thornton House, 2005; Ogata Yano, 2004).Mobile phones can provide the learner with frequent engagement opportunities to language problems all the time increasing the learning chances by allowing the learner to use many sources of authentic audio/visual and print materials once motivated (Beaudin et al. 2006). Nevertheless, there is no formal theory of mobile language learning developed to date (Joseph Uther, 2006), but still emerging mobile technologies increasingly suggest potential language learning solutions and environments that will be highly interactive, ubiquitous, and convenient. On the other hand, in countries such as India, cell phone ownership is growing fast. As a result, many educational projects are taking advantage of that development to create applications that run on mobile phones (Robert Godwin-Jones, 2008). However, research carried out by Ozhan (2004) reports that as educational level increases, the level of negative attitude toward mobile phones increases also. In the same vein, Pressley (2002), reading is about constructing meaning from a text so that the goal of reading goes beyond decoding and recognizing words. Also, reading is purposeful only when a learner can build meaning from a text and connect it to his or her everyday life. A lack of comprehension leads to negative attitudes and a loss of motivation (Graves et al., 2003). Additionally, Murphy (2006) also emphasizes the need to consider cultural and social factors when designing mobile learning activities. Similarly, Cobcroft et al. (2006) suggested to be well aware of the limitations a nd challenge, bearing in mind the potential impact on transforming current cultures and practices. Price as an influential factor in the purchase on Mobile Phones Besides new technological advances price was the most influential factor affecting the choice of a new mobile phone model. Price of the phone has b

Ethical Dilemmas Facing Social Workers Social Work Essay

Ethical Dilemmas Facing Social Workers Social Work Essay Social workers face ethical dilemmas on a daily basis, Banks illustrates this in her quotation ethical dilemmas occur when the social worker sees herself as facing a choice between two equally unwelcoming alternatives, which may involve a conflict of moral values, and it is not clear which choice will be the right one (Banks 2006:13). Banks implies that social workers are often involved in personal and even painful issues and ethical judgements in social work that are about human welfare (Banks 2006:155). This poses many challenges as decisions made are likely to be life changing for service users. It is therefore important for a social worker to be able to justify action (or inaction) accordingly. The facts of a case alone cannot determine what action must be taken, it would be impossible to make choices without values (Beckett and Maynard 2005:7). It is essential for a social worker to have a strong value base from which they work. In some instances problems may arise as social wor kers come into the profession with their own set of personal values and these may conflict with their professional values. Hence what Banks refers to as conflict of moral values (Banks 2006:13). Personal values cannot simply be eradicated because they conflict with professional values, but we must keep our values and assumptions under review, and be open to other arguments and other ideas (Beckett and Maynard 2005:17). In the case scenario of the Bertrams the alternatives are unwelcoming and in order to navigate the value maze in social work (Wilson, Ruch, Lymbery and Cooper 2008:92) social workers use various theories to inform practice. Kantism also referred to as deontology was derived from the ideas of philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Kant believed people should be treated as an end and not a means to an end. By this Kant meant people should be valued and respected as an individual and not used for the benefit of others. Hence, Kant believed that everyone should be treated equally. Kants ideology was to set aside peoples view of religion and spiritual beliefs and move to the idea of being rational. Rationality enables people to understand what their duties are and how their duties enlighten what they do in the world (Parrott 2010: 500). Kant also believed that by using reason this would develop a consistent moral system. In the case of the Bertrams if the social worker were to use the deontological perspective to guide her decision-making it would be important to value Mrs Bertram as a person because the core of this perspective is respect for persons (Beckett Maynard 2005:35). This goes hand in hand with t he British Association of Social Workers (BASW) Code of Ethics key principles: Respect for human dignity; Value for every human being, their beliefs, goals, preferences and needs; and Respect for human rights and self determination (BASW 2010). Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) developed the philosophical theory of Utilitarianism. Utilitarianism looks at the consequences of actions balancing the relative advantages and disadvantages of a particular course of action, (Parrott 2010: 54) Therefore one persons suffering is acceptable as the greatest number of people is happy. There are two principles of utilitarianism, the principles of justice and utility. The principle of justice is about being equal and fair as the value of everyones happiness should be the same. The principle of utility signifies the greatest good for everyone. In many cases these two principles clash as the minority of people are unhappy. In the case scenario of the Bertrams her happiness should be valued and it would be important to consider the repercussions of going against her wishes if it were considered in her best interests. A social worker would be expected to balance Mrs Bertrams right to self-determination, her safety and the concerns of her family for her welfare as it is often the social workers job to assess the whole situation and work for a solution in the best interests of all concerned (Banks 2006:167). Virtue ethics is a theory that looks into an individuals character. Ones virtue ethics are developed by their personal belief system and this determines their character. Virtue ethics is an approach according to which the basic judgments in ethics are judgments about character (Statman, 1997:7). Ethical issues are embedded in relationships and responsibilities. An individual may lie to be seen as virtuous because they want to be seen as an honest person.   Ã‚   Radical social work is seen as belonging to an area of social work which can also be known as critical or activist social work. The radical position takes a transformational view of social work, and as such is concerned with transforming society to benefit the most oppressed rather than focusing on the individual (Hill, 2010). Payne (1997) suggests some typical views are that; problems are defined as social and structural rather than individual. McIntyre (1982) cited in Payne (1997) summarises the radical approaches criticisms of traditional social work as; traditional social work reduces complex social problems into individual psychological ones, it cuts service users off from others who may share the same problem and it reinforces the capitalist social order that is oppressive. The radical position sees the professionalisation of social work as alienating workers from service users. Praxis is the process of thinking and acting. It is like a spiral of thought and action, or a praxis spiral. Praxis is integral to social work practice and comes in the form of reflection. In social work theory, praxis is the reflexive relationship between theories and action. It describes a cyclical process of social work interactions developing new theories and refining old ones. In order to work anti-oppressively social workers need to reflect on factors that influence their practice; they then need to incorporate the results of this reflection into their practice (Lee, 2001). Downie and Telfer (1969, 1980) state that respect can be regarded as an active sympathy towards another human being (Banks S, 2006: 29). Darwell (1995) outlines two types of respect, recognition respect and appraisal respect. Recognition respect is in essence when a human being is worthy of respect whether it is for something they have communicated verbally or through their actions. Appraisal respect is acknowledging ones qualities. The level of respect would reflect on the qualities shown. Kantism has had an influence on the moral principle of respect in a relationship between a social worker and the service user. (Banks S, 2006: 31) In order for a social worker to show full respect there are four key elements that have to be met, these are, acknowledgement, preservation, non-destruction and engagement (Banks and Gallagher, 2009). Relativism suggests that all points of view are equally valid and the individual determines what is true and relative for individuals. Relativism theorises that truth is different for different people, not simply that different people believe different things to be true. Subjective relativism allows us to be rulers of our own principles and how we chose to live our lives. Cultural relativism is the view that moral beliefs and practises vary with and depend on the human needs and social conditions of particular cultures so that no moral belief can be universally true. (A E Holmes 1984). is this a direct quote? Descriptive Ethical relativism believes that different cultures have different moral values and normative ethical relativism suggests that each culture is right unto itself. The Collins English Dictionary (2009) defines values as the moral principles and beliefs of a person or group and ethics as a social, religious or civil code of behaviour considered correct, especially that of a particular group, profession, or individual. Therefore values can be seen as the fundamental beliefs that an individual or group holds to be true and ethics the more formalised rules or guidelines of an organization or society. Banks (2010) states that values are regarded as particular types of belief that people hold about what is regarded as worthy or valuable. (direct quote ?need pg number) Although values are personal to us as individuals, they may also be shared by the society or culture in which we live. Our values are formed through personal development and socialisation and will be influenced by both past and present experiences. (Parrott, 2010) Dubois and Miley (1996) state ethics are concerned with what people consider right while values are concerned with what peop le consider good. Most moral philosophers would define ethics as a singular term, which is used to describe a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of Morality, moral problems and moral judgements (Frankena, 1963 cited in Banks, 2006: page number). According to Parrott (2010), ethics can be seen to guide an action and are there to inform and influence any judgements made according to the professional value base of social work. Reamer (2006) provides an insight into the historical origins of values and ethics in social care and states that they have been at the foundation of social cares mission since its inception. He suggests that social work values and ethics come from four distinct stages: the morality period; the values period; the ethical theory and decision-making period and the ethical standards and risk management period (Reamer, 2006). These have culminated in the General Social Care Councils (GSCC) code of conduct that is in place today (Barnard, 2008). Social workers are duty bound to adhere to the GSCC codes of practice which acts as an ethical framework. A written code of ethics enables social workers to judge their practice against an ethical standard and enables service users to understand what conduct they should expect from their social worker. If social workers are considered to be in breach of the GSCC codes they can be removed from the social care register and no longer practice. Professional social workers must take responsibility for their actions as they hold a position of trust and power that is legitimised by the state making ethics an important factor in accountability. The impact of all practice on service users can be said to be powerful and therefore the ethics and value base emphasises the importance that the moral standing of service users is equal to that of the professional (Hugman, 2008). The National Occupation Standards (NOS) for Social Workers state clearly that values and ethics are central to being a competent practitioner. Parrott (2010) suggests that values are important to social work as they provide a common set of principles, which social workers can use and develop as a means of working in an ethical way with service users.(direct quote ? pg number) He goes on to say that they guide professional behaviour, help maintain a professional identity and protect service users from malpractice. It is important to clarify ones personal values in order to increase ones awareness of the potential conflicts and the impact these may have on ethical decision making. A persons cultural experiences and background will affect the decisions they make and may bias their behaviour. Social workers must first clarify their own value stance in relation to value-laden issues they meet in practice situations if they want to be true to themselves and to their profession (Dolgoff, 2009:54). When linking moral philosophy and ethical dilemmas to social work practice it is important to acknowledge that no one theory provides an answer. Traditionally social work has taken the Kantian approach and focused on the social worker / service user relationship. The need for social work to challenge inequality and oppression on an individual and structural level means radical social work is also still relevant. An overall Kantian Utilitarian Radical approach may be better. (Banks, 2006) The right of a service user to self determination may conflict with a social workers statutory duty if they are potentially endangering their own life or that of others (Clifford and Burke, 2009). Neil Thompson (2006, p40) defines oppression as inhuman or degrading treatment of individuals or groups; hardship or injustice brought about by the dominance of one group over another; the negative and demeaning use of power. It often involves disregarding the rights of an individual or group and is thus a denial of citizenship. Service users will predominately come from oppressed and marginalised groups and it is crucial that social workers acknowledge institutional discrimination and avoid inadvertently stereotyping service users, compounding existing oppressions. (Thompson, 2008) Social workers need to be aware of the unequal distribution of power within organisations and decide how best to advocate and negotiate within these organisations for the best interest of the service user, even if it involves challenging the structure and values of an organisation from within (Dominelli, 2002). Paternalism focuses on the right for social workers with knowledge, authority, and skills to go into the lives of those who need their help, either by self referral or referrals from other professions. Mrs Bertram has been referred by another professional because of her Alzheimers. Ethical awareness is an important part of social work as it gives the social worker the ability and commitment to work alongside other professionals and service users. The Utilitarian view is consequential with the results given as much consideration as possible. Therefore when thinking about practice this approach would say to think of the persons outcome (future) when dealing with the present situation. This would mean weighing the good with the bad. The radical approach would empower the service user into change enabling them to overcome problems and equip them with techniques to deal with these independently in the future. Social workers should involve the service user in the decision making process, working in partnership and keeping them fully informed about their case. The starting point of dealing with this case would be an assessment of the Bertrams situation. The assessment task when undertaken in a professional and informed manner is rewarding and sets the foundation for further interventions (Wilson, Ruch, Lymbery and Cooper 2008:269). The Bertrams financial situation is unclear as it appears that Mr Bertram doesnt have much inheritance money left which has led to rent arrears. This situation would need to be resolved soon as their landlord is threatening to evict them for rent arrears and the state of the flat, which could render them both homeless. Mrs Bertrams insight appears to be severely impaired by her end stage Alzheimers and an assessment of the health risks may require securing detailed information from the GP about Mrs Bertrams Alzheimers and other health issues, and the likely prognosis. Mr Bertram is believed to be an alcoholic and this could have implications for his health. The likelihood of a positive outcome would perhaps be i ncreased if Mr Bertram could be offered help for alcoholism as well as a carers assessment to ascertain what his needs are. He spends considerable time at his club, leaving his wife alone in the house vulnerable and at risk. Mrs Bertrams daughters distrust Mr Bertram and believe its in her best interest to be moved into residential care. Before her illness advanced Mrs Bertram stated she wanted to stay with her husband. Possible options to consider after the assessment would be providing support for Mr and Mrs Bertram at home, moving them into sheltered accommodation together or moving Mrs Bertram into residential care. All these alternatives may be unwelcoming to the Bertrams therefore in order to bring about any change it would be important to first build a relationship with both Mr Bertram and Mrs Bertram and her daughters applying the Kantist view that the truth is told. This could mean trying to communicate with Mrs Bertram at select times when she is more lucid and can partici pate as much as possible. It is important to develop/construct a shared understanding of the problem(s) being faced (Wilson, Ruch, Lymbery and Cooper, 2008:282). Judgements should be informed directly by what Mr and Mrs Bertram say about their circumstances. Mr and Mrs Bertram must have a key part in the assessment of their situation, and any issues should be shared allowing them to continue to have as much choice as possible. The strengths of this plan are that Mr and Mrs Bertram will be involved in the care plan and will be able to express their views, as well as Mrs Bertrams daughters being able to contribute towards the care plan. This may build a strong relationship with the family and build on trust so they do co- operate and consider all the options as they will understand that the strategy would be for the health and well being of both Mr and Mrs Bertram. As social workers we need to have a basic understanding of what the Bertrams values are as it would be difficult to empathise and get the necessary understanding of their wishes if we do not. As social workers we could then possibly struggle to make progress when trying to help the Bertrams. This professional development is important as we will use this type of growth everyday in the workplace. In this case the main value/wish seems to be that the Bertrams stayed together in their home. A social workers personal values may inform their understanding of practice. However, a social worker needs to follow the broader framework provided by anti-oppressive social work ethics. The framework provided allows a place for personal values but challenges social workers to place them within the wider framework where they are accountable to others and they must desist from imposing their values and in fact question them. (Clifford and Burke, 2009) Different contributions are made by various ethical perspectives in any given situation and these must be considered. Ethical perspectives must be considered in light of an anti-oppressive approach to practice and in relation to each other as there are occasions when the different perspectives conflict. Social workers have an obligation to work in a way that demonstrates not only knowledge of relevant ethical concepts and local laws but also a broader awareness of how ethical values are related to social inequalities and diversities (Cl ifford and Burke, 2009:203) Word Count: 2993 (including author details in brackets)

An Analysis of the Los Angeles County Hospital Emergency Room Essay

An Analysis of the Los Angeles County Hospital Emergency Room Learning Team Operations Management Plan The problem of emergency department overcrowding has become an important issue for many emergency departments throughout the city and county of Los Angeles. Patients frequently have to wait hours just to get into the emergency department to be seen by a physician or other healthcare professionals. The problem does not seem to be getting better as times goes on, but indeed studies seem to indicate that the condition is growing worse. At a local Los Angeles County Hospital (King Drew Medical Center) emergency department, we found that the problem is especially severe. Patients are forced to wait as long as 8-12 hours to be seen and treated by physicians. This paper will propose a plan that will help to alleviate this critical problem of emergency department overcrowding and long patients waits for services. Problem Statement There is a nationwide shortage of emergency room space and an increased demand for emergency services. Public health officials, hospital executives, and doctors are increasingly concerned about emergency department ''boarding," because of the potential impact on both patient safety and staff burnout (Kowalczyk, 2005). Our paper will attempt to solve the problem of emergency department overcrowding and long waiting times. We propose to first create a flow chart of present operations from the beginning of the emergency department visit to the discharge or admission of the patient. We believe that the process can be analyzed and changed in a way that improvement can be accomplished by improving efficiency and flow of traffic through the emergency department processes. Null Hypothesis Our study attempts to identify a serious problem at a local Los Angeles County Hospital that appears to have plausible solutions. Looking at other similar hospitals throughout the nation and abroad, it appears that restructuring and appropriate panning may help to alleviate long patients’ waits for services. The null hypothesis states that changes in the processes of triage, registration, evaluation, treatment and disposition will shorten waiting times and improve efficiency (mu= changes in process). The alternative hypothesis states that changing in the process of triage, registration, evaluation, treatment and disposition will not change or improve waiti... ...y will be made and expenses reduced by a more efficient process. References Campbell, A.B. (2003). Strategic planning in health care: Methods and application. Quality Management in Health Care, 1(4), 12-23. Kowalczyk, L.(2005). Hospitals strive to reduce waiting lines for beds. Retrieved April 26, 2005 from the world wide world: http:// www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/hospitals ================================================================= Kelton, W. D., R. P. Sadowski, D. A. Sadowski, 2002. Simulation with Arena, Second Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. Quality in Healthcare. Retrieved April 26, 2005 from the world wide world: http://www.jcaho.org/qualitycheck/ Los Angeles County Hospital (King Drew Medical Center Emergency Room, 2005). Measures to reduce length of stay in the emergency room. LA: Author. Affinity Data Collection Systems. Retrieved April 26, 2005 from the world wide world: www.affinitydata.com. Wilson, A. (2004). Reduction of ED Queues and Elopement Through the Straight Back Approach. .Retrieved April 26, 2005 from the world wide world: http://tgi@thomasgroup.com/

My Arrest and Rebirth :: Law College Admissions Essays

My Arrest and Rebirth With great embarrassment and pain, I must tell you that I have once been arrested; it was over a fight with my brother Jacob. The police attribute Jake's behavior to chemical dependence; my parents blame it on some unknown incident while he was at school. I don't know, myself; I do know that I returned from Israel to find Jake had taken over my room, as well as anything else in the house he could manipulate or control. The TV, VCR and computer were his absolute domain; I missed a calculus final because he took the car without permission. He refused to engage in any conversation at all with my parents. His "conversations" with me and Sol were primarily a barrage of put-downs and insults. He kept lists of "crimes" other people had committed, for which he sought revenge, by stealing things or just hiding them. Nothing was secure or safe at home; I didn't feel secure or safe there. Home was worse hell than the army had ever been. How can I explain how traumatic this was for me? Imagine being asleep on the sofa (the only bed I had) and being awakened in the middle of the night by the blasting of the TV. If I complained, I would be either ignored or screamed at. If I pretended interest, he would start changing channels, or switch to the stereo. If I called my parents, my "crime" got added to his list for later revenge. I pleaded with my parents to intervene, but they just called me selfish; couldn't I see that I had a sick brother, that I had to "help" him by tolerating his behavior until he magically got well? "Magically" because we couldn't seek any help; that would require letting an "outsider" know We had a problem. After he beat up my brother Sol, my father ordered Jake to leave until he cooled off, the first time he had ever intervened. But Jake called my father's bluff; he disappeared for two weeks. This pattern of violence, abusiveness, drinking and disappearing escalated throughout the summer. After one particularly violent outburst, I finally tried to show my parents that by refusing to deal with Jake's illness, they were hurting Sol and me. I staged a suicide attempt with sugar pills I had placed in an aspirin bottle.

Oral Diseases During Pregnancy Health And Social Care Essay

Pregnancy is a delicate status affecting complex physical and physiological alterations. Pregnancy constitutes a particular physiological province characterized by a series of impermanent adaptative alterations in organic structure construction, as the consequence of an increased production of estrogens, Lipo-Lutin, gonadotrophins, and relaxin, among other endocrines. The unwritten pit is besides affected by such endocrinal actions, and may show both transient and irreversible alterations every bit good as alterations that are considered pathological [ 1 ] . Pregnant adult females are peculiarly susceptible to gingival and periodontic disease. In this context, different unwritten lesions are reported to be common during gestation. In consequence, an increased prevalence of dental changes excessively has been documented, including peculiarly cavities and erodings [ 2 ] . The biochemical and hormonal alterations of gestation enhance the hazard. Since the old married womans ‘ narrative of â€Å" the loss of a tooth for every gestation, † unwritten wellness during gestation has long been a focal point of involvement [ 3 ] . Vergnes and Sixou [ 4 ] , in their systematic, a meta-analytic reappraisal of 17 articles concluded that there was a statistically important association between periodontal disease and inauspicious gestation results. Perinatal mortality rates in Pakistan and many other developing states are more than 10-fold greater than in developed states. In a survey on periodontic disease and inauspicious birth results in pregnant Pakistani adult females, it was found that they have high degrees of moderate-to-severe dental disease. It was concluded that spontaneous abortion and neonatal and perinatal deceases increased with the badness of periodontic disease [ 5 ] . Patients, doctors, and tooth doctors are cautious, frequently avoiding intervention of unwritten wellness issues during gestation. This job is compounded by a deficiency of clinical guidelines for the direction of common unwritten conditions in gestation. In the absence of pattern guidelines, fright of medico legal action based on negligent or deficient intervention of unwritten conditions during gestation abounds, but it is mostly baseless [ 6 ] . In add-on to a deficiency of pattern criterions, barriers to dental attention during gestation include unequal dental insurance, relentless myths about the effects of gestation on dental wellness, and concerns for fetal safety during dental intervention [ 7 ] . Common PROBLEMS DURING PREGNANCY Oral lesions: During gestation, the unwritten pit is exposed more frequently to gastric acid that can gnaw dental enamel. Morning illness is a common cause early in gestation ; subsequently, a slack esophageal sphincter and upward force per unit area from the big womb can do or worsen acerb reflux. Patients with terrible purging can hold enamel erodings. Rinsing the oral cavity with a teaspoon of baking sodium carbonate in a cup of H2O or using tooth mousse ( casein phosphopeptide formless Ca phosphate ) on the dentition after purging can neutralize acid. Pregnant adult females should be advised to avoid brushing their dentitions instantly after purging and to utilize a toothbrush with soft bristles when they do brush to cut down the hazard of enamel harm. Fluoride gargle can protect eroded or sensitive dentitions. Dental Cavities: An increased prevalence of dental changes has been documented, including peculiarly cavities ( 99.38 % ) [ 2 ] . Pregnant adult females are at higher hazard of tooth decay for several grounds ; including increased sourness in the unwritten pit, sugary dietetic cravings, and limited attending to unwritten wellness. Untreated dental cavities can take to unwritten abscess and facial cellulitis. Pregnant patients should diminish their hazard of cavities by brushing twice daily with fluoride toothpaste and restricting sugary nutrients. Patients with untreated cavities and associated complications should be referred to a tooth doctor for unequivocal intervention. If the female parent ( infecting individual ) has high salivary mutans streptococci count, transmittal occurs through several day-to-day spit contacts between the kid and the female parent. The acquisition of mutans streptococci is suggested to happen during a distinct age interval: a â€Å" window of infectivity † between 19 and 31 months in which the proportion of kids with MS additions from 25 % to 75 % [ 8 ] . Numerous literatures have stated that both hapless nutrition and low birth weight are risk factors for the development of early childhood cavities ( ECC ) . ECC is an early arising, potentially lay waste toing and deadly signifier of dental cavities. It non merely does dentitions, but consequences in hurting, infection and damage of unwritten map which leads to malnutrition and lessened quality of life. Under- or malnourished babies and babies with low birth weight are at hazard for enamel hypoplasia ( uncomplete formation of enamel ) [ 9 ] . Enamel hypoplasia may do an irregular enamel surface or stain, which can ensue in countries more prone to cavities. Therefore, pregnant female parents should be advised to optimise nutrition during the 3rd trimester and the baby ‘s first twelvemonth, when the enamel is undergoing ripening. Pregnancy Oral Tumor: Pyogenic granuloma ( or pregnancy tumour ) seems to be common in the conceiving female population. Pregnancy unwritten tumours are vascular lesions caused by increased Lipo-Lutin in combination with local thorns and bacteriums. Lesions are typically erythematous, smooth, and lobulated ; they are located chiefly on the gum. The lingua, roof of the mouth, or buccal mucous membrane may besides be involved. Pregnancy tumours are most common after the first trimester, turn quickly, and typically recede after bringing. Management is normally experimental unless the tumours bleed, interfere with chew, or do non decide after bringing. Lesions surgically removed during gestation are likely to repeat [ 10 ] . Loose ( Mobile ) Teeth: Dentitions can loosen during gestation, even in the absence of gum disease, because of increased degrees of Lipo-Lutin and estrogen impacting the periodontium ( i.e. , the ligaments and bone that support the dentition ) [ 1 ] . For unsophisticated loose dentitions non associated with periodontic disease, doctors should reassure patients that the status is impermanent, and entirely it will non do tooth loss [ 11 ] . Gingivitis: Gingivitis is the most common unwritten disease in gestation in such state of affairss. It is redness of the superficial gum tissue. During gestation, gingivitis is aggravated by fluctuations in estrogen and Lipo-Lutin degrees in combination with alterations in unwritten vegetations and a reduced immune response, therefore cut downing the organic structure ‘s ability to mend and keep gingival tissue [ 12 ] . Thorough unwritten hygiene steps, including tooth brushing and flossing, are recommended. Patients with terrible gingivitis may necessitate professional cleansing and demand to utilize mouth rinses such as chlorhexidine. Periodontal disease: Periodontal disease is a destructive redness of the periodontium impacting many adult females of childbearing age. The procedure involves bacterial infiltration of the periodontium. Toxins produced by the bacteriums stimulate a chronic inflammatory response, and the periodontium is broken down and destroyed, making pockets that become septic. Finally, the dentition loosen. This procedure can bring on perennial bacteraemia, which indirectly triggers the hepatic ague stage response, ensuing in production of cytokines, prostaglandins ( i.e. , PGE2 ) , and interleukins ( i.e. , IL-6, IL-8 ) , all of which can impact gestation [ 13 ] . Elevated degrees of these inflammatory markers have been found in the amnionic fluid of adult females with periodontal disease and preterm birth compared with healthy control patients [ 14 ] . In one survey, research workers found minimum unwritten bacteriums in the amnionic fluid and placenta of adult females with preterm labor and periodontal disease [ 15 ] . It seems likely that this inflammatory cascade entirely prematurely initiates labors due to early uterine contractions. The mechanism is thought to be similar for low birth weight ; the release of PGE2 restricts placental blood flow and causes placental mortification and attendant intrauterine growing limitation [ 16 ] . PRENATAL Guidance Prenatal unwritten wellness reding for parents is an of import factor because infant unwritten wellness begins at this phase. The chief aim is to bring forth consciousness among parents about dental disease, its bar and the agencies to supply a suited environment for the kid to develop. Prospective parents need to cognize that antenatal appraisal and instruction are indispensable to the unwritten wellness of their kid. Prenatal appraisal includes unwritten wellness position of the parent. If the parents are at hazard, the tooth doctor should supply preventative intervention and educate them on good plaque control, followed by Restorations if required and discourse the transmissibility of Mutans streptococci from the female parent to the baby. Parents should be monitored on a regular footing to guarantee effectual unwritten hygiene and dietetic wonts have been established. Improvement of the female parent ‘s unwritten hygiene, diet and the usage of oral cavity rinses can hold a important impact on the kid ‘s cavities rate in the hereafter [ 17 ] . Anticipatory counsel: Anticipatory counsel is the procedure of supplying practical, developmentally appropriate information about kids ‘s wellness to fix parents for the important physical, emotional and psychological mileposts. Anticipatory counsel involves three types of undertakings: ( I ) assemblage information, ( two ) set uping a curative confederation, and ( three ) supplying instruction and counsel. General prevenient counsel for the female parent includes the undermentioned [ 18 ] , [ 19 ] : ( a ) Education refering development and bar of dental disease and besides presentation of unwritten hygiene processs. ( B ) Reding to instil preventative attitudes and motive. ( degree Celsius ) Supplying information to pregnant adult females about gestation gingivitis ( redness of the gum caused by an exacerbated response to dental plaque, related to hormonal alterations during gestation ) . With gingivitis, the gums become inflamed, conceited, sensitive and tend to shed blood. Signs of gingivitis may go apparent in the 2nd trimester and extremum during the 9th month of gestation. ( vitamin D ) Visiting a tooth doctor for an scrutiny and Restoration of all active decay every bit shortly as executable and to diminish opportunities of developing gestation gingivitis. ( vitamin E ) Eating healthy nutrients such as fruits, veggies, grain merchandises ( particularly whole grain ) , and dairy merchandises ( milk, cheese ) during repasts and bites. Limit eating between repasts. ( degree Fahrenheit ) Eating nutrients incorporating merely sugar at mealtimes, and restricting the sum. Frequent ingestion of nutrients high in sugar additions the hazard for tooth decay. In add-on, frequent ingestion of nutrients that easy adhere to the tooth surface, such as dried fruit and confect, increase the hazard for tooth decay. ( g ) Brushing teeth exhaustively twice a twenty-four hours ( after breakfast and before bed ) with fluoridated toothpaste and flossing day-to-day. ( H ) Rinsing every dark with an alcohol-free, nonprescription fluoridated mouth rinse. ( I ) Not smoking coffin nails or masticating baccy. DENTAL PROCEDURES DURING PREGNANCY Every pregnant adult female should be assessed for dental hygiene wonts, unwritten jobs ( e.g. , cavities, gingivitis ) , and entree to dental attention [ 11 ] . Conversely, inauspicious gestation outcomes, such as low birth weight, preterm birth, and pre-eclampsia, occur in adult females who have non received intervention. Good unwritten wellness during gestation is of import to the overall wellness of both anticipant female parents and their babes. Relevant information sing the type of dental intervention that can be undertaken may be summarized as follows [ 18 ] , [ 19 ] : First trimester: It is the most important period for growing of fetus. Merely exigency dental intervention should be undertaken in audience with the patient ‘s doctor when organogenesis is uncomplete. Second and 3rd trimester: Emergency every bit good as elected dental intervention can be provided. The 3rd trimester presents the extra jobs of positional uncomfortableness and the hazard of vein caval compaction. Prop uping a adult female on her left side, shifting frequently, and maintaining visits brief can cut down jobs [ 20 ] . Postponing dental attention until after bringing can be debatable because new female parents are focused on the attention of their neonates and may hold alveolar consonant insurance merely during gestation [ 13 ] . Plaque diet control plans are initiated for female parent throughout gestation. Screening and Prevention: Oral scrutiny should include the dentitions, gums, lingua, roof of the mouth, and mucous membrane. Patients should be counselled to execute everyday brushing and flossing, to avoid inordinate sums of sugary bites and drinks, and to confer with a tooth doctor. Status of and programs for unwritten wellness should be documented. Many tooth doctors are reported to be loath to handle pregnant adult females [ 21 ] . Physicians and tooth doctors can get the better of this state of affairs through instruction, clear communicating, and the development of ongoing collaborative relationships. Doctors can portion information on the safety of dental intervention in gestation with dental co-workers and supply clear referral recommendations. Diagnosis: Dental skiagraphy may be performed in gestation for acute diagnostic intents [ 22 ] . When possible, skiagraphy should be delayed until after the first trimester. Screening skiagraphy should be deferred until after bringing. Modern fast movie, turning away of retakes, and usage of lead aprons and thyroid shields all bound hazard. The teratogenic hazard of radiation exposure from unwritten movies is 1,000 times less than the natural hazard of self-generated abortion or deformity [ 21 ] . Medicines for Dental processs: Local anaesthetics such as Lidocaine ( Xylocaine ) and prilocaine ( Citanest ) mixed with adrenaline are safe for processs when dosed suitably [ 23 ] . Sedatives such as benzodiazepines ( e.g. , Versed ) , lorazepam ( Ativan ) and triazolam ( Halcion ) should be avoided. Azotic oxide is non rated and its usage in gestation is controversial [ 24 ] . Periodontic Therapy: A randomized controlled test of 870 adult females with pregnancy-associated gingivitis found that intervention ( ie, plaque control, grading, and daily rinsing with 0.12 % chlorhexidine ) and care ( ie, unwritten hygiene direction and manual supragingival plaque remotion every 2 to 3 hebdomads until bringing ) significantly reduced the preterm birth or LBW rate [ 25 ] . Renewing Dentistry: Amalgam, a mixture of 50 % metallic quicksilver and other metals, has advantages over other renewing stuffs ; nevertheless, there is concern that quicksilver can be released as vapor, ions, or all right atoms, which can be inhaled or ingested. Surveies and instance studies of amalgam exposure during gestation have non documented any toxicity, including birth defects, neurologic sequelae, self-generated abortions, or decrease in birthrate [ 26 ] . A longitudinal rating of renewing stuffs employed in a minimum renewing intercession attack of 81 high caries-active pregnant adult females demonstrated that extremely syrupy glass ionomer cement applied in a minimum intercession attack provided high-quality preventative and renewing attention. The complex was employed in pits exposed to lower emphasis, such as in the anterior dentitions [ 27 ] . Dental Extraction: Tooth extraction during gestation seems to be a common thing. The many hormonal alterations during gestation cause many pregnant adult females to hold jobs that they did n't hold before they became pregnant. One of the things that happen is that the gum is much more sensitive to annoyance. They swell, become inflamed, turn ruddy, bleed and are frequently painful. These reactions are to the plaque environing the dentition. It is really common to hold gum job around a wisdom tooth and the surrounding gums merely acquire more aggravated while a adult female is pregnant. This is the primary ground that tooth extraction during gestation is non an uncommon experience.A Of class, tooth doctors would prefer to avoid tooth extraction during gestation. However, the best involvements of the kid must be thought of excessively. A female parent that is in changeless hurting while transporting a kid is emphasizing out her organic structure. This is likely non healthy for the kid. A tooth extraction process nowadays is really soft and many patients are non even aware that their tooth has been removed. Root Canal Treatment: Many pregnant adult females are concerned about the effects of a root canal process to their fetus. Obstetricians suggest that it is best to avoid exposing the developing babe to any hazards, even if they are minimum. Unfortunately, it is non the same to prorogue a root canal intervention as it is to prorogue a dentition whitening process. If the tooth doctor recommends a root canal during gestation, the hazards are associated with: Pain: Dentition that need root canal therapy are normally accompanied by terrible odontalgia. Continuous hurting during gestation can be a truly nerve-racking status with potentially negative effects to the female parent and fetus. Infection: The conditions when a root canal is recommended during gestation ever affect tooth infection. If the infection is left untreated for a long clip, the infection can distribute throughout the organic structure doing terrible complications. This is a status that will set a gestation into important danger. A safer attack to a root canal intervention during gestation: Obstetricians consider the first trimester as the most important for the development of the fetus. Any non-emergency dental work in the 1st trimester should be postponed until the 2nd trimester, to avoid all possible hazards. If needed the tooth doctor can open an abscessed tooth to let drainage and hurting alleviation, and clean the mush country every bit good as possible. Subsequently, when gestation enters the 2nd trimester, an X ray can be taken to let the completion of the root canal intervention. The same process can be followed for a job during the 3rd trimester ; concluding intervention is postponed until after the birth, if possible. Management of Acute Dental conditions: If mild cellulitis is present, penicillin, Amoxil, and Keflex are sensible first-line antibiotics. Erythromycin base ( non erythromycin estolate, which is associated with cholestatic hepatitis in gestation ) or clindamycin ( Cleocin ) can be used in the type 1 hypersensitivity penicillin-allergic patient. For terrible cellulitis, the patient should be hospitalized and treated with endovenous Mefoxins or clindamycin. To pull off dental hurting, Datril is the drug of pick ; isobutylphenyl propionic acid and limited usage of oxycodone are appropriate [ 11 ] . PREVENTIVE METHODS Although a figure of non-invasive preventative intercessions, traditional wellness instruction remains the gilded criterion for presenting the message to promote parents to subscribe to these preventative intercessions. By â€Å" traditional wellness instruction, † which means advice-giving Sessionss conducted by professionals and/or the airing of information via booklets, postings and media runs. Unfortunately, such attacks are non effectual [ 28 ] . Weinstein & A ; co workers, after biennial consequences of controlled test suggested that motivational interviewing ( MI ) guidance has a positive consequence on kids ‘s dental wellness that is greater than that of traditional wellness instruction [ 29 ] . The antimicrobic intervention ( topical application of Na fluoride ( NaF ) and iodine solution instantly after prophylaxis and 3 and 5 yearss subsequently ) for the pregnant female parent, 6 and 12 months after bringing had greater influence by cut downing the acquisition of MS from the female parent to the kids [ 30 ] . Kohler et Al ( 1994 ) used chlorhexidine ( CHX ) in female parents with a high degree of MS in spit and found that there is a decrease in the MS degree of spit of the female parent and besides had a long-run consequence on the MS colonisation and besides on the cavities experience of the kid [ 31 ] . A 30 month survey to measure the effectivity of a cavities preventative government ( 0.05 % Na fluoride and 0.12 % chlorhexidine oral cavity rinse everyday during 6 months of gestation till 24 months after bringing ) showed promising consequences on utilizing combination of fluoride and chlorhexidine [ 32 ] , [ 33 ] . Fluoride is the most widely known and accepted anti-caries agent available, and chlorhexidine is the most widely used plaque-inhibitory compound33. These agents have wholly different mechanisms of action, and their combined disposal produces a synergic consequence on mutans streptococci [ 33 ] . Xylitol and chlorhexidine lower maternal unwritten bacterial burden and cut down transmittal of bacteriums to babies when used tardily in gestation and/or in the postpartum period. Both topical agents are safe in gestation and during suckling [ 34 ] . Surveies have used different dosing degrees, and the optimum dosage for consistent bar is ill-defined. Long-run usage of high-dose xylitol mastication gums had good effects on plaque pH, and that this consequence was statistically greater when utilizing xylitol masticating gums, both on plaque pH and MS salivary concentration [ 35 ] . Decision Dental intervention is indispensable for optimum unwritten wellness, which extends to pregnancy. Routine dental visits can include the usage of X raies, unwritten prophylaxis, Restorations, interventional interventions like root canal interventions, periodontic surgeries and extractions because utilizing local anesthetics during gestation have non been found to be associated with an increased hazard to the developing fetus. Conversely, inauspicious gestation outcomes, such as low birth weight, preterm birth, and pre-eclampsia, occur in adult females who have non received intervention. However, gestation is a clip when adult females may be more motivated to do healthy alterations. Gynecologists and doctors can turn to maternal unwritten issues, potentially cut downing the hazard of preterm birth and childhood cavities through unwritten disease bar, diagnosing, early direction, and dental referral.

Muhammad Yunus and Grameen Bank

Muhammad Yunus and Grameen Bank were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 2006 for their efforts in creating economic and social development for the masses below.The Chairman of the Nobel Committee said in his prize announcement speech that poverty is reduced if large groups of people work towards it, and microfinance is one such method. Muhammad Yunus is one person who had the leadership and the vision and took an initiative to translated those visions into practical action, and benefitted people in Bangladesh and other countries. He established the idea to give loans to poor people who had no financial security. Muhammad Yunus was given the award because he established a model for many other organizations to follow.He had the vision that every man, no matter how poor, has some talent within him that he can pursue for his own economic uplift. This is especially true for the women in the society who deserve to get an equal opportunity to men to acquire the necessary finances to pursue t heir talents. Microcredit is one of the methods that Muhammad Yunus thought could help in the erosion of poverty from the world. (Cozyinhel, 2006)Muhammad Yunus gave a speech about the microfinance revolution. In this video, he talks about how he came up with the idea of microfinance. He explained how when Bangladesh was formed, it faced a lot of problems, economy was sliding down and famines struck too. He was an economics teacher at that time and he felt terrible for not being able to use all that he teaches to help the people of his country. He wanted to remove people from this frustration and agony and the one thing that caught his attention most was the ruthlessness of the money lenders in a small village.He researched into how many people in the village actually went to these money lenders for money and found out how less they borrowed. He realized how entrenched the money lending system was in the roots and this led him to the solution that he came up with. He thought that if he gives the mere amount of money to people from his own pocket, they can return that to the money lender and they will be free. So the basic idea he had in mind was to free the people from the money lenders.He did this initially as a onetime action and later wanted to expand this into a systematic system. He then thought of an idea to go to a bank and ask them to lend that amount to the villagers, which blatantly refused to lend money to the poor people because they were not credit worthy. He then convinced them to allow him to be the guarantor and lend money to the poor.This was agreed upon and he kept growing this system. He is of the opinion that during the entire process, all he did was to struggle against mindsets (Calit2ube, 2007).He was also of the opinion that banking system was unjust because it excluded the poor and the women, so he decided to put his maximum focus on lending money to the women. Again at this point, he faced a struggle of mindset because women themselves were scared and unwilling to take the money and use it to create something. But he said that this was not the voice of the woman but the voice of fear and if worked upon patiently, these fears can be removed. Ultimately, they started lending to women and the impact on the families was much stronger than lending to men.Keeping this in mind, Grameen Bank thus started lending 97% to women only! Grameen Bank was owned by these poor women, who were the shareholders and on the Board of Directors, and it worked for the poor women too. Grameen Bank went to the poor, the women and the rurals. They worked on the philosophy, â€Å"The less you have, the more attractive a borrower you are for the Bank† (Calit2ube, 2007).He thus started a system that was then established all over the world. Muhammad Yunus is of the opinion that poverty is not created by the poor people, it is created by the system, by our mindsets and by our institutions. Microfinance enabled people to change their lives , it gave a mere 15$ to enable people to move away from a begging position to a dignified position.In an interview with Charlie Rose, Muhammad Yunus said that the system was to give money to poor people without collateral and a guarantee. The existing financial system served to only top one third people who have a huge amount of money and lent money to those who had money to give you collateral.They decided to give money to those who have no money to start with. It worked so well and expanded all over the world because there always was a crying need for it and nobody had ever paid attention to it (Rose, 2007). He has a strong conviction that such a system if grown exponentially can eradicate poverty from this world because poverty is artificially sown in the society and once that seed is removed, it can be eliminated.